Layered composite film incorporating quantum dots as programmable dopants

ABSTRACT

Quantum dots are positioned within a layered composite film to produce a plurality of real-time programmable dopants within the film. Charge carriers are driven into the quantum dots by energy in connected control paths. The charge carriers are trapped in the quantum dots through quantum confinement, such that the charge carriers form artificial atoms, which serve as dopants for the surrounding materials. The atomic number of each artificial atom is adjusted through precise variations in the voltage across the quantum dot that confines it. The change in atomic number alters the doping characteristics of the artificial atoms. The layered composite film is also configured as a shift register.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority pursuant to 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S.provisional patent application No. 60/577,239 filed 4 Jun. 2004, whichis hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety as though forthherein. This application is also related to copending U.S. applicationSer. No. 11/144,326 filed concurrently herewith, which is herebyincorporated by reference in its entirety as though fully set forthherein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

This invention relates to a device for producing quantum effects: alayered composite film incorporating quantum dot devices, which includeelectrodes controlled by an external energy source. The invention hasparticular, but not exclusive, application in materials science, as aprogrammable dopant which can be placed inside bulk materials andcontrolled by external signals.

2. Description of the Related Art

The fabrication of very small structures to exploit the quantummechanical behavior of charge carriers e.g., electrons or electron“holes” is well established. Quantum confinement of a carrier can beaccomplished by a structure whose linear dimension is less than thequantum mechanical wavelength of the carrier. Confinement in a singledimension produces a “quantum well,” and confinement in two dimensionsproduces a “quantum wire.”

A quantum dot is a structure capable of confining carriers in all threedimensions. Quantum dots can be formed as particles, with a dimension inall three directions of less than the de Broglie wavelength of a chargecarrier. Quantum confinement effects may also be observed in particlesof dimensions less than the electron-hole Bohr diameter, the carrierinelastic mean free path, and the ionization diameter, i.e., thediameter at which the carrier's quantum confinement energy is equal toits thermal-kinetic energy. It is postulated that the strongestconfinement may be observed when all of these criteria are metsimultaneously. Such particles may be composed of semiconductormaterials (for example, Si, GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs, InAlAs, InAs, andother materials), or of metals, and may or may not possess an insulativecoating. Such particles are referred to in this document as “quantum dotparticles.”

A quantum dot can also be formed inside a semiconductor substratethrough electrostatic confinement of the charge carriers. This isaccomplished through the use of microelectronic devices of variousdesign, e.g., an enclosed or nearly enclosed gate electrode formed ontop of a quantum well. Here, the term “micro” means “very small” andusually expresses a dimension of or less than the order of micronsthousandths of a millimeter. The term “quantum dot device” refers to anyapparatus capable of generating a quantum dot in this manner. Thegeneric term “quantum dot,” abbreviated “QD” in certain of the drawingsherein, refers to any quantum dot particle or quantum dot device.

The electrical, optical, thermal, magnetic, mechanical, and chemicalproperties of a material depend on the structure and excitation level ofthe electron clouds surrounding its atoms and molecules. Doping is theprocess of embedding precise quantities of carefully selected impuritiesin a material in order to alter the electronic structure of thesurrounding atoms for example, by donating or borrowing electrons fromthem, and therefore altering the material's electrical, optical,thermal, magnetic, mechanical, or chemical properties. Impurity levelsas low as one dopant atom per billion atoms of substrate can producemeasurable deviations from the expected behavior of a pure crystal, anddeliberate doping to levels as low as one dopant atom per million atomsof substrate are commonplace in the semiconductor industry for example,to alter the band gap of a semiconductor.

Kastner, “Artificial Atoms,” Physics Today (January 1993), points outthat the quantum dot can be thought of as an “artificial atom,” sincethe carriers confined in it behave similarly in many ways to electronsconfined by an atomic nucleus. The term “artificial atom” is now incommon use, and is often used interchangeably with “quantum dot.”However, for the purposes of this document, “artificial atom” refersspecifically to the pattern of confined carriers, e.g., azero-dimensional electron gas, and not to the particle or device inwhich the carriers are confined. Kastner describes the future potentialfor “artificial molecules” and “artificial solids” composed of quantumdot particles. Specifics on the design and function of these moleculesand solids are not provided.

Quantum dots can have a greatly modified electronic structure from thecorresponding bulk material, and therefore different properties. Quantumdots can also serve as dopants inside other materials. Because of theirunique properties, quantum dots are used in a variety of electronic,optical, and electro-optical devices. Quantum dots are currently used asnear-monochromatic fluorescent light sources, laser light sources, lightdetectors including infra-red detectors, and highly miniaturizedtransistors, including single-electron transistors. They can also serveas a useful laboratory for exploring the quantum mechanical behavior ofconfined carriers. Many researchers are exploring the use of quantumdots in artificial materials, and as dopants to affect the optical andelectrical properties of semiconductor materials.

The embedding of metal and semiconductor nanoparticles inside bulkmaterials (e.g., the lead particles in leaded crystal) has occurred forcenturies. However, an understanding of the physics of these materialshas only been understood comparatively recently. These nanoparticles arequantum dots with characteristics determined by their size andcomposition. These nanoparticles serve as dopants for the material inwhich they are embedded to alter selected optical or electricalproperties. The doping characteristics of the quantum dots are fixed atthe time of manufacture and cannot be adjusted thereafter.

In general, the prior art almost completely overlooks the broadermaterials-science implications of quantum dots. The ability to placeprogrammable dopants in a variety of materials implies a useful controlover the bulk properties of these materials. This control could takeplace not only at the time of fabrication of the material, but also inreal time, i.e., at the time of use, in response to changing needs andconditions. However, there is virtually no discussion of the use,placement, or control of programmable quantum dots in the interior ofbulk materials. Similarly, there is no discussion of the placement oflarge arrays of electrically controlled quantum dot devices in one ormore layers within a bulk material. There are hints of these concepts ina handful of references, discussed below.

Leatherdale et al., “Photoconductivity in CdSe Quantum Dot Solids,”Physics Review B (15 Jul. 2000), describe, in detail, the fabrication of“two- and three-dimensional . . . artificial solids with potentiallytunable optical and electrical properties.” These solids are composed ofcolloidal semiconductor nanocrystals deposited on a semiconductorsubstrate. The result is an ordered, glassy film composed of quantum dotparticles, which can be optically stimulated by external light sourcesor electrically stimulated by electrodes attached to the substrate toalter optical and electrical properties. These films are extremelyfragile and are “three-dimensional” only in the sense that they havebeen made up to several microns thick. The only parameter that can beadjusted electrically through changes in the source and drain voltage onthe substrate is the average number of electrons in the quantum dots.Slight variations in the size and composition of the quantum dotparticles mean that the number of electrons will vary slightly betweenquantum dots. However, on average the quantum dot particles will allbehave similarly.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,881,200 to Burt discloses an optical fiber (1)containing a central opening (2) filled with a colloidal solution (3) ofquantum dots (4) in a support medium. See prior art FIGS. 1 and 2herein. The purpose of the quantum dots is to produce light whenoptically stimulated, for example, to produce optical amplification orlaser radiation. The quantum dots take the place of erbium atoms, whichcan produce optical amplifiers when used as dopants in an optical fiber.The characteristics of the quantum dots can be influenced by theselection of size and composition at the time of manufacture.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,889,288 to Futatsugi discloses a semiconductor quantumdot device that uses electrostatic repulsion to confine electrons. Thisdevice consists of electrodes (16 a), (16 b), and (17) controlled by afield effect transistor all formed on the surface of a quantum well on asemi-insulating substrate (11). See prior art FIGS. 3A and 3B herein.This arrangement permits the exact number of electrons trapped in thequantum dot (QD) to be controlled by varying the voltage on the gateelectrode G. This is useful, in that it allows the “artificial atom”contained in the quantum dot to take on characteristics similar to anynatural atom on the periodic table, and also transuranic and asymmetricatoms which cannot easily be created by other means. The two-dimensionalnature of the electrodes means that the artificial atom can exist onlyat or near the surface of the wafer.

Kouwenhoven et al., “Quantum Dots,” Physics World, (June 1998), describethe process of manipulating an artificial atom confined in a similardevice, including changing its atomic number by varying the voltage on agate electrode. The described device is capable of holding up to 100electrons, whose “periodic table” is also described, and is differentfrom the periodic table for normal atoms since the quantum confinementregion is nonspherical. The materials science implications of this arenot discussed.

Turton, “The Quantum Dot,” Oxford University Press (1995), describes thepossibility of placing such quantum dot devices in two-dimensionalarrays on a semiconductor microchip as a method for producing newmaterials, for example, through the combination of adjacent artificialatoms as “molecules.” This practice has since become routine, althoughthe spacing of the quantum dot devices is typically large enough thatthe artificial atoms formed on the chip do not interact significantlynor do they produce macroscopically significant doping effects.

Goldhaber-Gordon et al., “Overview of Nanoelectronic Devices,”Proceedings of the IBEE, Vol. 85, No. 4, (April 1997), describe what maybe the smallest possible single-electron transistor. This consists of a“wire” made of conductive C₆ benzene molecules with a “resonanttunneling device,” or “RTD,” inline that consists of a benzene moleculesurrounded by CH₂ molecules, which serve as insulators. The device isdescribed, perhaps incorrectly, as a quantum well (rather than a quantumdot) and is intended as a switching device transistor rather than aconfinement mechanism for charge carriers. However, in principle thedevice should be capable of containing a small number of excesselectrons and thus forming a primitive sort of artificial atom. Thus,the authors remark that the device may be “much more like a quantum dotthan a solid state RTD.” See p. 19. The materials science implicationsof this are not discussed.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,512,242 to Fan et. al. describes a device for producingquantum effects comprising a quantum wire (504), energy carried alongthe quantum wire under voltage control, and quantum dots (502, 503) nearthe quantum wire that hold energy. The quantum wire transports electronsinto and out of a quantum dot or plurality of quantum dots through“resonant tunneling” rather than through any direct connection betweenthe quantum wire and the quantum dot. As described by Fan et al., thequantum dots serve as “resonant coupling elements” that transportelectrons between the quantum wire acting as an electronic waveguide orbetween different ports on the same waveguide. In other words, thequantum dots serve as a kind of conduit. However, there is no means forcontrolling the number of electrons trapped inside the quantum dots atany given time, nor for controlling the size or shape of any artificialatom that might briefly and incidentally exist there.

U.S. Patent Application Publication US 2002/0079485 A1 by Stinz. et. aldiscloses a “quantum dash” device that can be thought of as anasymmetric quantum dot particle with elongated axes, or as a short,disconnected segment of quantum wire. In this sense, quantum dashes aremerely a special class of quantum dot particles. As described by Stinzet al., a plurality of the quantum dash devices are embedded atparticular locations inside a solid material to enhance the excitationof laser energy within the material. The resulting structure is a“tunable laser” with an output frequency that can be adjusted over anarrow range. This tuning is accomplished through “wavelength selectivefeedback” using an external optical grating to limit the input lightfrequencies that can reach the dashes inside the material. Thepublication notes that “an ensemble of uniformly sized quantum dashesthat functioned as ideal quantum dots would have an atomic-like densityof states and optical gain.” Stinz et al. relies on the exact geometryand composition of the semiconductor material to produce quantum dashesof a particular size and shape. Therefore, selection of the availablequantum states is achieved exclusively at the time of manufacture, “witha variety of length-to-width-to-height ratios, for example, by adjustingthe InAs monolayer coverage, growth rate, and temperature.” While a beamof photons with carefully selected energies can excite these chargecarriers inside the quantum dashes, it cannot alter the fixed size orshape of the quantum dashes. The energy affects all the quantum dashesequally, along with the surrounding material in which they are embedded.Furthermore, if the surrounding material is opaque, then photon energycannot reach the quantum dashes at all.

U.S. Patent application No. US 2002/0114367 A1 by Stinz et. al.discloses “an idealized quantum dot layer that includes a multiplicityof quantum dots embedded in a quantum well layer sandwiched betweenbarrier layers.” Similarly, U.S. Pat. No. 6,294,794 B1 to Yoshimura et.al. discloses “a plurality of quantum dots in an active layer such thatthe quantum dots have a composition or doping modified asymmetric in adirection perpendicular to the active layer.” These quantum dotparticles are simply embedded in an optical crystal. Yoshimura et. al.suggest the use of quantum dots as dopants and introduce the concept ofasymmetric dopants with nonlinear effects. A similar quantum dot layerstructure is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,281,519 B1 to Sugiyama et. al.

McCarthy, “Once Upon a Matter Crushed,” Science and Fiction Age (July1999), in a science fiction story, includes a fanciful description of“wellstone,” a form of “programmable matter” made from “a diffuselattice of crystalline silicon, superfine threads much finer than ahuman hair,” which use “a careful balancing of electrical charges” toconfine electrons in free space, adjacent to the threads. This isprobably physically impossible, as it would appear to violate Coulomb'sLaw, although we do not wish to be bound by this. Similar text by thesame author appears in McCarthy, “The Collapsium,” Del Rey Books (August2000), and McCarthy, “Programmable Matter,” Nature (05 Oct. 2000).Detailed information about the composition, construction, or functioningof these devices is not given.

U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/964,927 by McCarthy et. al.discloses a fiber incorporating quantum dots as programmable dopants,and discusses the use of such fibers in materials science, either byembedding one or more fibers inside a bulk material or by braiding,stacking, or weaving the fibers together. The application discloses anembodiment wherein the fibers are flat ribbons. Prior art FIGS. 4A and4B show a fiber containing control wires (34) in an insulating medium(35), surrounded by a quantum well, plus an optional memory layer (33).The quantum well is formed by a central or transport layer (32) of asemiconductor (similar to the negative layer of a P-N-P junction)surrounded by barrier or supply layers (31) of a semiconductor withhigher conduction energy (similar to the positive layers of a P-N-Pjunction). The surface of the fiber includes conductors that serve asthe electrodes (30) of a quantum dot device. These electrodes (30)confine charge carriers in the quantum well into a small space orquantum dot (QD) when a reverse-bias voltage is applied, since thenegative charge on the electrodes (30) repels electrons, preventingtheir horizontal escape through the transport layer (32). The electrodes(30) are powered by control wire branches (36) reaching to the surfaceof the fiber from the control wires (34) in the center of the fiber.Once the charge carriers are trapped in a quantum dot (QD), they form anartificial atom that is capable of serving as a dopant. Increasing thevoltage on the electrodes (30) by a specific amount forces a specificnumber of additional carriers into the quantum dot (QD), altering theatomic number of the artificial atom trapped inside. Conversely,decreasing the voltage by a specific amount allows a specific number ofcarriers to escape to regions of the transport layer (32) outside thequantum dot (QD). Thus, the doping properties of the artificial atom areadjusted in real time through variations in the signal voltage of thecontrol wires (34) at the fiber's center.

Hennessy et al., “Clocking of molecular quantum-dot cellular automata,”J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, pp. 1752-1755 (September/October 2001),disclose a one-dimensional shift register composed of quantum dots, foruse in computer logic and memory. The items shifted are binary bits ofinformation, represented by single electrons in the dots. Such singleelectrons could be regarded as a degenerate form of artificial atom(i.e., an artificial “hydrogen” atom), although the structures are notdescribed that way. Any materials science implications of the electronconfinement is not addressed. The system described is neither intendedfor nor capable of shifting artificial atoms of arbitrary size, shape,or energy level.

The information included in this Background section of thespecification, including any references cited herein and any descriptionor discussion thereof, is included for technical reference purposes onlyand is not to be regarded subject matter by which the scope of theinvention is to be bound.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to the use of quantum dots within alayered composite film to produce a plurality of real-time programmabledopants within the film. The term “programmable dopant composite film”refers to a sandwich of heterogeneous materials with quantum dotspopulating, attached to, embedded in, or forming its upper surface. Thisshould not be confused with a quantum well, which is a structure forcarrier confinement in one dimension only. An energy-transportingstructure is included in the composite film to control the properties ofthe quantum dot dopants using external energy sources, even when thequantum dot dopants are embedded in solid materials, including opaque orelectrically insulating materials that would ordinarily isolate thequantum dots from external influences.

According to the present invention, charge carriers are driven into thequantum dots by the energy in control paths and are trapped in thequantum dots through quantum confinement, such that the charge carriersform artificial atoms, which serve as dopants for the surroundingmaterials. The atomic number of each artificial atom is adjusted throughprecise variations in the voltage across the quantum dot that confinesit. The change in atomic number alters the doping characteristics of theartificial atoms.

In some embodiments of the present invention, the excitation level ofthe artificial atom is also controlled, either through additionalelectrical voltages or through optical or electromagnetic stimulation.Additionally, in some embodiments of the invention, the energy in thecontrol paths creates electric fields that affect the quantumconfinement characteristics of the quantum dots. This producescontrolled and repeatable distortions in the size and shape of theartificial atoms, further altering their doping characteristics with acorresponding effect on the surrounding materials.

Since the electrical, optical, thermal, magnetic, mechanical, andchemical properties of a material depend on its electronic structure,and since the embedding of dopants can affect this structure, the novelprogrammable dopant composite film of the present invention offers ameans for controlling the interior properties of a bulk material in realtime. These material effects are a consequence of manipulating theinternal electron arrangements of the bulk material, i.e., itselectronic structure.

The structure, composition, manufacture, and function of quantum dotparticles generally is taught in U.S. Patent Application Publication No.2003/0066998 by Lee et al., which is hereby incorporated by reference asthough fully set forth herein. The structure, composition, manufacture,and function of exemplary quantum dot devices is taught in U.S. Pat. No.5,889,288 to Futatsugi, which is hereby incorporated by reference asthough fully set forth herein. It will be understood by a person ofordinary skill in the art that the quantum dot particles or quantum dotdevices employed by the present invention may be of different designthan those described by Lee et al. and Futatsugi, but that theiroperating principles are essentially identical.

The function of quantum dots as dopants has been recognized in certaininstances in the prior art, for example, in thin films and on thesurfaces of microchips. It is understood that quantum dots can have agreatly modified electronic structure from the corresponding bulkmaterial, and therefore exhibit different material properties, forexample, different optical and electrical properties. The use of quantumdots as dopants inside other materials has been described, for example,in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2002/0041736 A1 by LoCascloet. al., paragraph 0045. The term “artificial atom” is also in commonuse—for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,498,354 to Jefferson et. al.—and isoften used interchangeably with “quantum dot.” The idea that a change inthe energy level applied to a quantum dot can vary the number ofconfined electrons and thus the “atomic number” of the artificial atomwas considered by Turton, supra.

The present invention reorganizes these principles or devices in a noveland useful way, namely as a composite film or layered material withquantum dot devices attached to its surface whether upper, lower, orboth, and with one or more control wires running along or within thecomposite to control the doping properties of the quantum dots, even inthe interior of bulk materials.

In one form, the present invention is seen in a device for producingquantum effects. The device comprises a material fashioned into a thin,flexible film and a plurality of quantum dots, physically connected withthe material. A control path is physically connected with the materialand operatively coupled with the plurality of quantum dots. The controlpath is adapted to carry energy from an energy source to the pluralityof quantum dots. The device further comprises a plurality of chargecarriers capable of being confined within the plurality of quantum dotsto form a respective plurality of artificial atoms. The energy isadapted to cause an electric potential across each of the quantum dotsto confine a respective subset of the plurality of charge carriers in acontrolled configuration within each quantum dot to form a respectiveartificial atom. The energy determines the size, shape, atomic number,and/or energy level of each artificial atom of the respective pluralityof artificial atoms confined in each respective quantum dot. Theplurality of artificial atoms alter the electrical, optical, thermal,magnetic, mechanical, and/or chemical properties of the material.

In another form, the present invention is a device for producing quantumeffects comprising a thin, flexible film. The film comprises a transportlayer and a barrier layer. The transport layer and the barrier layertogether form a heterojunction. The device further comprises anelectrode supported on the film and a control path physically connectedwith the film and operatively coupled with the electrode. The controlpath is adapted to carry energy from an energy source to the electrode.The device additionally comprises a plurality of charge carriers capableof being confined within a gas layer of the heterojunction to form aplurality of artificial atoms. When energized, the electrode creates anelectric field that interacts with the heterojunction and causes theformation of a plurality of potential barriers that correspond to aplurality of quantum dots. The plurality of quantum dots confinemultiple subsets of the charge carriers in the gas layer of theheterojunction in a controlled configuration to form the plurality ofartificial atoms. The energy determines the size, shape, atomic number,and/or energy level of the plurality of artificial atoms correspondingto plurality of quantum dots. The plurality of artificial atoms alterthe electrical, optical, thermal, magnetic, mechanical, and/or chemicalproperties of the device.

In an additional form, the present invention is a device for producingquantum effects comprising a thin, flexible film. The film furthercomprises a first barrier layer, a second barrier layer, and a transportlayer located between the first barrier layer and the second barrierlayer. An electrode is supported on the film and a control path isphysically connected with the film and operatively coupled with the atleast one electrode. The control path is adapted to carry energy from anenergy source to the electrode. The device additionally comprises aplurality of charge carriers capable of being confined within specificareas of the transport layer to form a plurality of artificial atoms.When energized, the electrode creates an electric field that interactswith the first barrier layer, the second barrier layer, and thetransport layer to instantiate a plurality of potential barriers thatform a plurality of quantum dots. The plurality of quantum dots confinemultiple subsets of the charge carriers in the transport layer in acontrolled configuration to form the plurality of artificial atoms. Theenergy determines the size, shape, atomic number, and/or energy level ofthe plurality of artificial atoms corresponding to the plurality ofquantum dots. The plurality of artificial atoms alter the electrical,optical, thermal, magnetic, mechanical, and/or chemical properties ofthe device.

In another form, the present invention is a shift register comprising athin, flexible film, a plurality of quantum dots, physically connectedwith the film, a plurality of charge carriers, a plurality ofelectrodes, and a plurality of control paths. The plurality of chargecarriers are capable of being confined within the plurality of quantumdots to form a respective plurality of artificial atoms. The pluralityof electrodes are electrically insulated from each adjacent electrode.Each electrode is interposed between a respective pair of the pluralityof quantum dots. A plurality of control paths are physically connectedwith the film and operatively coupled with the plurality of electrodes.Each the plurality of control paths is electrically coupled with arespective subset of the plurality of electrodes. Each of the pluralityof control paths is adapted to carry energy to the plurality ofelectrodes. A first one of the plurality of quantum dots is locatedbetween a first pair of the plurality of electrodes. A second one of theplurality of quantum dots is located between a second pair of theplurality of electrodes. The first pair of electrodes is energized viaat least a first one of the plurality of control paths to trap and holda first controlled configuration of charge carriers in the first quantumdot, thus forming a first artificial atom of particular size, shape,atomic number, and/or energy level. The first artificial atom isrelocated within the film by energizing the second pair of electrodesvia at least a second one of the plurality of control paths to trap andhold a second controlled configuration of charge carriers in the secondquantum dot, thus forming a second artificial atom of particular size,shape, atomic number, and/or energy level identical to the firstartificial atom.

In yet another form, the present invention is a one-dimensional shiftregister comprising a thin, flexible film comprising two or more layersof semiconductor material, a plurality of charge carriers capable ofbeing confined within the film to form artificial atoms, a plurality ofparallel electrodes, a plurality of control paths, and a plurality ofvoltage sources. Each of the plurality of electrodes is spaced apartfrom each adjacent electrode. The plurality of control paths isphysically connected with the film, operatively coupled with theplurality of electrodes, and adapted to carry energy to the plurality ofelectrodes. Each of the plurality of voltage sources is electricallyconnected via one or more of the plurality of control paths with one ormore of the plurality of electrodes. A first one of the plurality ofquantum dots is located between a first pair of the plurality ofelectrodes. A second one of the plurality of quantum dots is locatedbetween a second pair of the plurality of electrodes The first pair ofelectrodes is energized via at least a first one of the plurality ofcontrol paths to trap and hold a first controlled configuration ofcharge carriers in the first quantum dot, thus forming a firstartificial atom of particular size, shape, atomic number, and/or energylevel. The first artificial atom is relocated within the film byenergizing the second pair of electrodes via at least a second one ofthe plurality of control paths to trap and hold a second controlledconfiguration of charge carriers in the second quantum dot, thus forminga second artificial atom of particular size, shape, atomic number,and/or energy level identical to the first artificial atom.

In a further form, the present invention is a multi-dimensional shiftregister comprising a plurality of quantum dot shift registers. Each ofthe quantum dot shift registers comprises a thin, flexible filmcomprising two or more layers of semiconductor material adapted toconfine a plurality of charge carriers in two dimensions, a plurality ofparallel electrodes, a plurality of quantum dots, a plurality of controlpaths, and a plurality of voltage sources. Each of the plurality ofelectrodes is spaced apart from each adjacent electrode. The pluralityof quantum dots are capable of being formed in the film between adjacentones of the plurality of electrodes. The plurality of control paths arephysically connected with the film, operatively coupled with theplurality of electrodes, and adapted to carry energy to the plurality ofelectrodes. Each of the plurality of voltage sources is electricallyconnected via one or more of the plurality of control paths with one ormore of the plurality of electrodes. A first one of the plurality ofquantum dots is located between a first pair of the plurality ofelectrodes. A second one of the plurality of quantum dots is locatedbetween a second pair of the plurality of electrodes. The first pair ofelectrodes is energized via at least a first one of the plurality ofcontrol paths to trap and hold a first controlled configuration ofcharge carriers in the first quantum dot, thus forming a firstartificial atom of particular size, shape, atomic number, and/or energylevel. The first artificial atom is relocated within the film byenergizing the second pair of electrodes via at least a second one ofthe plurality of control paths to trap and hold a second controlledconfiguration of charge carriers in the second quantum dot, thus forminga second artificial atom of particular size, shape, atomic number,and/or energy level identical to the first artificial atom. Themulti-dimensional shift register is then formed by a first quantum dotshift register of the plurality of quantum dot shift registers and afirst array of quantum dot shift registers of the plurality of quantumdot shift registers arranged parallel to each other and perpendicular tothe first quantum dot shift register. Each of the plurality of parallelelectrodes of the quantum dot shift registers in the first array iscommon to each of the quantum dot shift registers in the first array.

Accordingly, several objects and advantages of the present invention maybe realized. First, the present invention provides a three-dimensionalstructure for quantum dots that may be considerably more robust than ananoparticle film. For example, a contiguous Si or GaAs film is heldtogether by atomic bonds, as opposed to the much weaker Van der Waalsforces that hold nanoparticle films together.

Second, the present invention provides a method for the electricaland/or optical stimulation of quantum dot particles embedded inside bulkmaterials. A layer of quantum dots also comprises, one or more wires oroptical conduits that are electrically and/or optically isolated fromthe material in which they are embedded. These pathways branch directlyto the quantum dot particles or devices on the surface of the layer,providing the means to stimulate them.

Third, the present invention provides a method for embedding andcontrolling electrostatic quantum dot devices and other types of quantumdot devices inside bulk materials, rather than at their surfaces.

Fourth, the present invention permits the doping characteristics ofquantum dots inside a material to be controlled by external signals, andthus varied by a user at the time of use. Thus, the properties of thebulk material can be tuned in real time, in response to changing needsor circumstances.

Fifth, in the present invention, the programmable dopant layer can beused outside of bulk materials in applications where quantum dots,quantum wires, and nanoparticle films are presently used. For example,the programmable dopant layer can serve as a microscopic light source orlaser light source.

Sixth, in the present invention multiple programmable dopant layers canbe stacked into three-dimensional structures whose properties can beadjusted through external signals, forming a type of “programmablematter,” which is a bulk solid with variable electrical, optical,thermal, magnetic, mechanical, and chemical properties. These propertiescan be tuned in real time through the adjustment of the energies in thecontrol paths that affect the properties of artificial atoms used asdopants.

Seventh, in the present invention the resulting programmable materials,unlike nanoparticle films, can contain artificial atoms of numerous andvariably different types, if desired. Thus, the number of potential usesfor materials based on programmable dopant layers is vastly greater thanfor the materials based on nanoparticle films.

Other features, details, utilities, and advantages of the presentinvention will be apparent from the following more particular writtendescription of various embodiments of the invention as furtherillustrated in the accompanying drawings and defined in the appendedclaims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the drawings, closely related figures have the same element numbers,except for FIGS. 1-4B from the prior art.

FIGS. 1 and 2 are from the prior art, U.S. Pat. No. 5,881,200 to Burt(1999), and show a hollow optical fiber containing a colloidal solutionof quantum dots in a support medium.

FIGS. 3A and 3B are from the prior art, U.S. Pat. No. 5,889,288 toFutatsugi (1999), and show a semiconductor quantum dot device that useselectrostatic repulsion to confine electrons.

FIG. 4A and 4B are from the prior art, U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/964,927, and are schematic drawings of a multilayered microscopicfiber That includes a quantum well, surface electrodes, which formquantum dot devices, and control wires to carry electrical signals tothe electrodes.

FIG. 5 is a schematic, cutaway view of one embodiment of a material filmof the present invention depicting a quantum well formed by an electrodeaddressed by control wires and including an optional memory layer.

FIG. 6 is a schematic representation of a portion of the presentinvention detailing a quantum well or heterojunction illustrating theconfinement of charge carriers in a two-dimensional layer.

FIG. 7 is a schematic representation of portions of the presentinvention illustrating the quantum confinement of charge carriers inthree dimensions by means of a quantum well or heterojunction, includingone or more surface electrodes and control wires.

FIG. 8 is a schematic representation of another embodiment of thepresent invention illustrating an array of quantum dot devices formed bya n electrode grid that confines charge carriers in a plurality ofthree-dimensional regions.

FIG. 9 is a schematic representation of an additional embodiment of thepresent invention illustrating the quantum confinement of chargecarriers in three-dimensions by a plurality of surface electrodes andcontrol wires. For clarity, only a single quantum dot device is shown,but in general this embodiment of the invention incorporates a pluralityof such devices in a two-dimensional array.

FIG. 10 is a schematic representation of a further embodiment of thepresent invention depicting a plurality of quantum wires and a gratingof parallel electrodes to produce quantum dot confinement regions.

FIG. 11 is a schematic representation of an alternative embodiment ofFIG. 1A, wherein the quantum wires are replaced by narrowheterojunctions.

FIG. 12 is a schematic representation of an artificial atom shiftregister that inducts groups of charge carries at one end and shiftsthem to particular locations inside the device.

FIG. 13 is a schematic representation of a two-dimensional array ofartificial atom shift registers that can be used to control the locationof a particular artificial atom or plurality of artificial atoms in twodimensions.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to the use of quantum dots within alayered composite film to produce a plurality of real-time programmabledopants within the film. Energy-transporting control paths are placed inthe composite film to control the properties of the quantum dot dopantsusing external energy sources. Charge carriers are driven into thequantum dots by the energy in control paths, and trapped there throughquantum confinement, such that the charge carriers form artificial atomswhich serve as dopants for the surrounding materials. The “atomicnumber” of each artificial atom is adjusted through precise variationsin the voltage across the quantum dot that confines it. Note that as theartificial atom has no nucleus, and thus no protons, the term “atomicnumber” is used herein to refer to the number of electrons formingvalence shells of the artificial atom. The change in atomic numberalters the doping characteristics of the artificial atoms.

FIG. 5 depicts a cross-sectional view of a layered composite film 100according to one embodiment of the invention. The layered composite film100 is a sandwich of materials arranged so as to use an external energysource to produce quantum effects including, but not limited to, servingas a programmable dopant or programmable material. The layered composite100 includes a quantum well 102, an insulating medium 108, and anoptional memory layer 110 positioned between the quantum well 102 andthe insulating medium 108. The quantum well 102 is composed of a centralor transport layer 104 of a semiconductor material, for example, GaAs,sandwiched between two barrier or supply layers 106 of a semiconductormaterial with higher conduction energy, for example, AlGaAs. Anexemplary composition of the insulating medium 108 is a semiconductoroxide material, for example, SiO₂, although a variety of other materialscould be used. In this embodiment, the layered composite film 100further contains control paths formed of wires 112, 112′ arranged in theinsulating medium 108.

Because of the difference in conduction energies, electrons settlepreferentially into the lower energy of the GaAs transport layer 104,where they are free to travel horizontally, i.e., within the transportlayer 104, but are confined “vertically” or perpendicular to thetransport layer 104 by the higher conduction energy of the barrierlayers 106. The semiconductor and oxide materials forming the transportlayer 104 and the barrier layers 106 are held together by covalent bondsand, because of their three-dimensional crystal structure, they arestrong, non-ductile materials. While brittle in bulk, thesesemiconductor and oxide materials can be formed into thin films orfibers which are flexible and can be used, for example, in fiberglass,flexible circuitry, or other applications where a combination ofstrength and flexibility is desirable. No other materials are needed tostrengthen or stabilize the layered composite film 100.

The transport layer 104 of the quantum well 102 must be smaller inthickness than the de Broglie wavelength of the charge carriers for thecharge carriers to be confined in the quantum well 102; For an electronat room temperature inside a solid material, this wavelength would beapproximately 20 nanometers. Thicker quantum wells are possible,although they will only exhibit quantum confinement of the chargecarriers at temperatures colder than room temperature. Thinner quantumwells will operate at room temperature and at higher temperatures aslong as the de Broglie wavelength of the charge carriers does not exceedthe thickness of the transport layer 104.

It will be understood by a person skilled in the art that there arenumerous, established fabrication processes capable of producingmaterial layers or films of appropriate thickness and purity for thisinvention. These may include, but are not limited to, sputtering,chemical vapor deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, and chemicallyself-assembled layers, including monolayers. Less established, butplausible, alternative fabrication methods include wet chemicalevaporation, electroplating, assembly by tailored microorganisms,molecular machines, direct-write nanolithography, e.g., dip pennanolithography or nanoimprint lithography, and atomic pick-and-place,e.g., with a scanning probe microscope. Other viable methods, althoughnot listed here, may also be used and this listing should not beconstrued as limiting the scope of the invention.

The surface of the layered composite film 100 includes conductors thatserve as the surface electrodes 114 of a quantum dot device. The surfaceelectrodes 114 confine charge carriers in the quantum well 102 into asmall space or quantum dot (not pictured) when a reverse-bias voltage isapplied. Quantum confinement of the charge carriers is effected by thenegative charge on the surface electrodes 114, which repels theelectrons and prevents the horizontal escape of the electrons throughthe transport layer from a region bounded by a group of the surfaceelectrodes 114. The application of an external voltage across thequantum well 102 will affect the conduction energy of the chargecarriers, and thus increase or decrease the number of charge carrierstrapped in the transport layer 104 in a controlled manner. The surfaceelectrodes 114 are powered by control wire branches 116, 118, 120reaching to the surface of the layered composite film from the controlwires 112, 112′ in the insulating medium 108. In an exemplaryembodiment, the surface electrodes 114, the control wires 112, 112′, andthe control wire branches 116, 118, 120 are made of gold, although theymay be made of other metals, or other conductive materials, includingsemiconductors or superconductors.

In addition to wires, the control paths, including the control wirebranches, may be formed of semiconductor or superconductor materials,optical fiber, or other conduits for carrying energy. The control pathsmay further be antennas for receiving signals and energy fromelectromagnetic waves, for example, radio frequency or microwaveantennas. Any of the embodiments of control paths or electrodesdescribed herein may be replicated on a molecular scale through the useof specialized molecules such as carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. Thequantum dots may be other sorts of particles or devices than thosediscussed herein, so long as they accomplish the quantum confinementnecessary for the formation of artificial atoms. In addition, the“artificial atoms” may be composed of charge carriers other thanelectrons, for example, positrons or “holes.” The number and relativesizes of the quantum dots with respect to the fiber may also besignificantly different than is shown in the drawings.

It will be understood by a person skilled in the art that the surfaceelectrodes 114 of appropriate width, thickness, purity, and positionalaccuracy may be laid down by a number of established methods. Thesemethods include, but are not limited to, for example, lithographicmasking procedures such as electron beam lithography and anodicoxidation lithography, coupled with etching procedures such as wetchemical etch or dry ion milling, and direct-write procedures such asdip pen nanolithography or nanoimprint lithography. Chemicalself-assembly is another optional process. Less established, butplausible, alternative methods include assembly by tailoredmicroorganisms or molecular machinery, assembly by atomicpick-and-place, e.g., with a scanning probe microscope, or by atomholography (i.e., exploiting the wavelike properties of atoms at verylow temperature). Other viable methods, although not listed here, mayalso be used and this listing should not be construed as limiting thescope of the invention.

FIG. 5 also depicts an optional memory layer 110 comprising microscopictransistors or other switches 122 that are placed in line with thecontrol wire branches 116, 118, 120 and serve as switches that arecapable of turning voltages to the surface electrodes 114 on and off. Afirst control wire branch extends from the control wire 112 to theswitch 122 to serve as a source electrode 116 of the switch 122 andsecond control wire branch extends from the switch 122 to the surfaceelectrode 114 to serve as a drain electrode 118 of the switch 122. Anadditional control wire branch extends from a central control wire 112′to serve as a gate electrode 120 for the switch 122. An exemplary formof the switch 122 is a field effect transistor, although numerous othertypes of switches 122, whether solid-state or mechanical, may be usedwithout affecting the function of the invention. This switching ormemory layer 110 is optional, since this switching can be accomplishedexternal to the layered composite film 100. However, it is included herefor clarity. Further, the external voltage applied to the surfaceelectrodes 114 may be differentiable at the voltage source or it may bechanged by the switches 122 in the memory layer 110. It will beunderstood by a person skilled in the art that the fabrication andoperational connection of microscopic transistors and other microscopicswitches is well established in the prior art, and need not be taughthere to explain the present invention.

While an exemplary embodiment is depicted and described, it should beunderstood that the present invention is not limited to this particularconfiguration. Quantum wells made from other materials and of otherdesigns than described above may be used. Quantum wells designed to trap“holes” or other positive charge carriers are contemplated. Further,heterojunctions may be used in place of quantum wells. The presentinvention may also employ quantum dashes in the same manner as quantumdot particles with little change in essential function of the invention.The layered composite film 100 may also be protected by an additionalinsulating layer (not pictured), either continuous or discontinuous,below, above, or surrounding the surface electrodes 114, and/orsurrounding the control wires 112, 112′ and control wire branches 116,118, 120.

Note that the exact arrangement of the various layers can be slightlydifferent than is depicted here, without altering the essentialstructure and function of the invention, which is a programmable dopantcomposite film. For example, the “sandwich” or composite film may betwo-sided, with quantum dot devices on its lower as well as uppersurface. In addition, the sandwich may not be flat, but may be foldedinto a cylinder, sphere, prism, flexible fiber or ribbon, or othershape. The control wires need not be located in an insulation layerbelow the quantum dot devices, although for some embodiments this may bethe most convenient place to locate them. One manner of using theprogrammable dopant composite film is to place the composite film or aplurality of composite films, as needed, inside a bulk material (e.g., asemiconductor). Alternately, the composite films may be stacked togetherinto a three-dimensional structure whose material properties can beaffected by external energy sources, forming a kind of “programmablematter.”

FIG. 6 illustrates the quantum confinement of charge carriers in onedimension in a layered composite film 200. In this embodiment, materiallayers 204 and 206 form a heterojunction 202. The preferred compositionof the heterojunction 202 is a transport layer 204 of a semiconductor,for example, GaAs, in continuous contact with a barrier or supply layer206 of a semiconductor with higher conduction energy, for example,AlGaAs. Because of the difference in conduction energies, electronssettle preferentially into the lower energy of the GaAs transport layer204. When a voltage 214 that is less than the breakdown voltage isapplied across the heterojunction 202, electrons are driven toward thehigher energy region of the barrier layer 206, but do not havesufficient energy to travel through it. Thus, electrons tend toaccumulate at the interface between the two layers, forming what isknown as a “two dimensional electron gas” 208. This electronaccumulation is so called a “gas” because the electrons are free totravel horizontally through this interface like the molecules in a gas,but are confined vertically by the material layers 204 and 206 above andbelow it. In a more general sense, other charge carriers such as holescan be driven into a heterojunction 202, forming the two-dimensional gas208. To a novice reader the term “gas” may be somewhat misleading inthis context, but it has been well established in the prior art and willbe recognized by a person of ordinary skill in the art.

In addition, when control wires 210, 212 are contacted with thetransport layer 204 and barrier layer 206 and an external voltage 214 isapplied across the heterojunction 202 as shown in FIG. 6, the potentialdifference between the two layers 204, 206 can be increased ordecreased, driving additional charge carriers into or out of theinterface in a controlled manner. This has the effect of increasing ordecreasing the number of carriers in the “gas” layer 208. It will beunderstood by a person skilled in the art that the various methods foradhering and electrically contacting control wires 210, 212 to aconducting or semiconducting surface are well established in the art.

FIG. 7 illustrates the quantum confinement of charge carriers in threedimensions in a layered composite film forming 300 a quantum dot device.In this embodiment, as in FIG. 6, a transport layer 304 and a barrierlayer 306 form a heterojunction 302, whose interface stores atwo-dimensional charge carrier “gas” 308. The exact charge density ofthe gas 308 can be increased or decreased by applying a first voltage320 across the heterojunction 302 using a first set of control wires316, 318. FIG. 7 also includes an additional insulating layer 310 on topof the heterojunction 302, and one or more surface electrodes 314 on topof the insulating layer 310. If the electrodes 314 are arranged so as toenclose, or nearly enclose, an area above a quantum well orheterojunction 302 as shown, the electric fields generated by theelectrodes 314 can be used to further confine the charge carriers in thegas layer 308.

When a second set of control wires 322, 324 are contacted with thesurface electrodes 314 and the transport layer 306 of the heterojunction302 or quantum well, and a voltage 326 is applied between them, thesurface electrodes 314 acquire a net charge. Since like charges repel, anegative charge on the surface electrodes 314 will cause negativelycharged charge carriers, e.g., electrons, in the gas layer 308 to berepelled. Similarly, a positive charge on the surface electrodes 314will repel positive charge carriers. As a result, the uniform “gas” 308of charge carriers is disrupted, so that charge carriers outside thearea enclosed by the electrodes 314 are driven away, while chargecarriers inside the enclosed area are driven toward the center. Thesecharge carriers enclosed by the electrodes 314 cannot leave withoutovercoming the energy barrier of the repulsive force. If the resultingconfinement space is smaller than the de Broglie wavelength of theconfined charge carriers, then quantum confinement effects will beobserved, and the confinement space is known as a quantum dot 312. Theentire apparatus, including the transport layer 304 and the barrierlayer 306 forming the heterojunction 302, the control wires 316, 318,322, 324, the insulating layer 310, and the surface electrodes 314,constitutes the quantum dot device 300.

Accordingly, to operate the quantum dot device formed in the compositefilm 300, voltages 320, 326 from an external source are applied to thecontrol wires 316, 318, 322, 324. A first voltage 320 creates apotential difference between the transport layer 304 and barrier layer306 of the heterojunction 302 or quantum well via control wires 316,318, and a second voltage 326 creates a potential difference between thesurface electrodes 314 and the bottom barrier layer 306 of theheterojunction 302 or quantum well. Alternatively, the control wires316, 318, 322, 324 may pass through an optional memory layer of the typedepicted in FIG. 5. Such a memory layer may include transistors or otherswitches embedded in an insulating medium, inline with the control wires316, 318, 322, 324, and capable of switching the voltage circuits openor closed. The resulting potentials create an electrostatic repulsionthat traps charge carriers in the two-dimensional gas layer 308 andfurther confines the charge carriers to a small area, the quantum dot312.

Once the charge carriers are trapped in a quantum dot 312, they form awave structure known as an artificial atom, which is capable of servingas a dopant for any surrounding material, for example, the insulatinglayer 310. The doping effects of the artificial atom are an inevitableconsequence of the alteration to the electronic structure of thecomposite film 300. Indeed, these effects are known properties of aquantum dot 312. The present invention exploits this principle in anovel way and for a novel purpose, i.e., to employ external signals toalter the optical, electrical, thermal, chemical, magnetic, andmechanical properties of a bulk material in real time, and after thetime of manufacture, thus producing a form of “programmable matter.”

Because significant material effects are observed at doping levels aslow as one dopant atom per million atoms of substrate, and because thestructure in FIG. 7 can be produced in a sample area of fewer than 1million atoms by a variety of known techniques, the presence of oneartificial atom in the structure is materially significant. Of furtherconsequence is the size of an artificial atom, which is larger than thatof a natural atom. The larger size of an artificial atom also affectsits doping properties since it is present in a larger percentage byvolume of the material than a natural dopant atom.

In the embodiment shown in FIG. 7, the number of charge carriersconfined in the quantum dot 312 can be precisely controlled. First, aspecified voltage is placed across the heterojunction 302, by means ofthe control wires 316, 318, to trap a specified density of chargecarriers in the “gas” layer 308. Next, a voltage is applied between thebarrier layer 306 of the heterojunction 302 and the surfaced electrode314 at the top of the device 300, to charge the electrode 314 and createan energy barrier to any charge carrier traveling directly beneath. Thisvoltage 326 is selected such that the desired number of carriers in theregion of the gas layer 308 enclosed by the electrode 314 are confinedin a quantum dot 312. If the number of carriers exceeds the desirednumber, the repulsion of charges of the charge carriers confined insidethe quantum dot 312 will exceed the repulsion of the energy level of theelectrode 314 and the excess carriers will cross the electrode energybarrier and escape into the gas layer 308. The number of carrierstrapped in the quantum dot 312 can then be reduced simply by reducingthe voltage 326 across the surface electrode 314. This reduces theenergy barrier, thus reducing the total net charge the quantum dot 312can confine, and allows a specified number of carriers to escape.

To increase the number of carriers confined in the quantum dot 312, thevoltage 320 across the heterojunction 302 can be increased. Thisincreases the density of charge carriers trapped in the gas layer 308,and the voltage 320 can be selected such that the self-repulsion of thegas 308 drives a specified number of charge carriers across the energybarrier of the electrode 314 and into the quantum dot 312.Alternatively, to increase or decrease the number of charge carriers inthe quantum dot 312, the voltage 326 across the surface electrode 314can be removed, allowing the quantum dot 312 to dissipate into the gaslayer 308. Next a new voltage 320 can be applied across theheterojunction 302, and then a new voltage 326 can be applied across theelectrode 314, such that the desired number of carriers will be confinedin the quantum dot 312 as described above.

Thus, altering the voltages across the control wires 316, 318, 322, 324produces repeatable changes in the charge of the quantum dot 312, andtherefore the atomic number of the artificial atom confined in it. Thelayered composite film 300 of the present invention exploits thisprinciple in a novel way. It will be seen by a person skilled in the artthat altering the “atomic number” of the artificial atom affects itsdopant properties, thereby altering the electronic structure of thesurrounding materials and affecting their properties. Thus, the layeredcomposite film 300 shown in FIG. 7 is capable of serving as a form ofprogrammable matter, with optical, electrical, thermal, chemical,magnetic, and mechanical characteristics that can be adjusted in realtime.

The present invention is not limited to the particular configurationshown in FIG. 7, and includes quantum dot devices with electrodes ofother shapes. These possibilities include circles, triangles, regularand irregular polygons, open patterns of adjacent lines, and asymmetricshapes in any combination, such as, for example, a circular electrodewith a square central opening, a triangular electrode with a circularcentral opening, or other similar combinations.

Also notable is that the exact arrangement of the various layers of thelayered composite film with programmable dopants may be slightlydifferent than is depicted in FIG. 7 without altering the essentialfunction of the invention. For example, the transport layer 304 does nothave to be “on top” of the barrier layer 306 and their positions withrespect to each other and the insulating layer 310 and electrode 314could be reversed, i.e., the electrode 314 and/or the insulating layer310 could be adjacent the barrier layer 306. Further, a quantum well maybe used in place of a heterojunction, a thin metal layer may besandwiched between semiconducting or insulating layers (as in athin-film capacitor), or any other method may be used which is capableof confining the charge carrier gas 308 to a thin enough layer thatquantum effects will be observed. The device will also function withoutthe insulation layer 310, although there may be a substantial leakagecurrent across the transport layer 304 if the voltage on the surfaceelectrodes 314 exceeds the band gap of the transport layer 304. However,the same is true for the device as pictured in FIG. 7. If the electrodevoltage 326 exceeds the band gap of the insulator 310, a current may arcthrough the insulation layer 310. In either case, for some embodimentsof the invention lacking an insulator, the electrode voltage 326 may beselected such that quantum confinement occurs while significant leakagecurrent does not.

FIG. 8 illustrates the formation of an arbitrary number of quantum dots412 in a layered composite film 400 using two independent voltages 420,426 and four control wires 416, 418, 422, 424. The principle is exactlythe same as in FIG. 7, except that the surface electrode on top of theinsulating layer 410 has been fashioned into a grid electrode 414 withmultiple openings 428. These openings 428 may be physical voids in theelectrode material 414, e.g., filled with ambient air, vacuum, orliquid, or they may be composed of some other material which is lessconductive than the electrode material 414. For example, the electrodegrid 414 could be a metal plate interrupted by a regular pattern ofmilled pits through which electrons cannot easily conduct, or it couldbe a low-band gap semiconductor interrupted by a regular pattern oflocal oxidation, where the oxide has a higher band gap than thesemiconductor and thus impedes the entry or passage of electrons. If theopenings 428 are smaller than or comparable to the de Broglie wavelengthof the confined carriers, then quantum confinement effects will beobserved when the heterojunction 402 and surface electrode 414 arecharged as described above. Specifically, one quantum dot 412 is formedin the gas layer 408 between the transport layer 404 and the barrierlayer 406 beneath each opening 428 in the grid electrode 414, by thesame principles discussed above. Thus, a plurality of artificial atomsare created in the layered composite film 400 corresponding to eachopening 428 in the grid electrode 414.

A person skilled in the art will realize that the operation of thisembodiment is very similar to embodiment of FIG. 7, except thatalteration of the voltages 420, 426 across the control wires 416, 418,422, 424 will produce parallel changes in all of the artificial atoms atonce. In the specific case where the grid openings 428 are of preciselyequal size and spacing, and the distribution of charge carriers in thegas layer 408 is uniform, it will be understood that the artificialatoms formed in the quantum dots 412 are all identical and will changeatomic number and thus doping properties in the same ways and at thesame time when the voltages 420, 426 across the control wires 416, 418,422, 424 are altered. Thus, the complete composite film 400 will includea grid of identical, programmable, artificial atoms whose dopingproperties alter the optical, electrical, thermal, chemical, magneticand mechanical properties of the surrounding materials.

In an alternate embodiment, wherein the grid openings 428 are ofnonuniform size, shape, or spacing and/or the charge carrier gas 308 isof nonuniform initial distribution, the artificial atoms may or may notbe identical, and may or may not respond in identical ways to theinfluence of the voltages in the control wires 416, 418, 422, 424.However, in this case each individual artificial atom will still respondconsistently to any particular voltage setting, and the net behavior ofthe system will be fully repeatable. As a result, in either case thecomplete composite film 400 depicted in FIG. 8 is capable of serving asa programmable dopant device or material, i.e., a form of “programmablematter.”

A person of ordinary skill in the art will understand that the methodsfor forming a grid-shaped electrode are similar to those for forming anelectrode of any other shape, and need not be described here. However,it should be noted with particular emphasis that the lithographicprocesses of atom holography and nanoimprint lithography, whetherdirectly depositional or relying on the contamination and laterdeveloping and stripping of a “resist” layer, lend themselves to therapid production of large and relatively uniform grids. Other methods,for example, X-ray crystallography, are capable of producing extremelyfine interference patterns that may be used to expose a resist andproduce grid-like patterns in a metal layer, which can be used to dividea quantum well or heterojunction into quantum dot regions. Thesesingle-stamp methods for producing the electrode or electrodes of acomposite film or fiber or other material with programmable dopants arealso an embodiment of the present invention. Furthermore, it should alsobe understood by a person of ordinary skill in the art that the deviceas depicted in FIG. 8 can be scaled upward in two dimensions almostwithout limit. Thus, the embodiment pictured in FIG. 8 can be sized toinclude an arbitrary number of quantum dots 412.

The preferred use of the layered composite film according to the presentinvention is to embed it inside a bulk material and control it withexternal signals, in order to affect the bulk properties of the bulkmaterial in real time, through programmable doping. Alternatively,multiple layered composite films can be stacked into a three-dimensionalstructure or material that includes an extremely large plurality ofprogrammable, artificial atoms. Such a structure could accurately betermed “bulk programmable matter.”

Applications for programmable materials are numerous. For example, aperson skilled in the art will understand that since the magneticproperties of artificial atoms are affected by the charge in theelectrodes, the resulting bulk material according to the presentinvention can be used as an electromagnet operated by static electricityrather than by direct or alternating current. As another example,recognizing that the thermal properties of a bulk material according tothe present invention are affected by the artificial atoms, programmablematter can also be used as a solid-state thermal switch, i.e., it can beswitched between thermally conductive and thermally insulating states,forming the thermal equivalent of an electronic transistor or rheostat.As an additional example, recognizing that the chemical properties of asurface are a function of its electronic structure, the control ofartificial atoms as programmable dopants in a bulk material according tothe present invention can be used to attract or influence atoms ormolecules external to the material, as in a catalyst. Programmablematter can also be used, for example, as a color-changing material, forexample, in emissive or reflective computer displays. Numerous otherapplications are possible for these materials and the specific exampleslisted herein should not be construed as limiting the scope of theinvention or its applications.

FIG. 9 illustrates another embodiment of the invention, wherein alayered composite film 500 forms a quantum dot device with multipleelectrodes 514. A heterojunction 502 is again formed by the interfacebetween a transport layer 504 and a barrier layer 506. a voltage 520 isapplied across the heterojunction 502 via control wires 516, 518 incontact with the barrier layer 506 and the transport layer 504,respectively. A person of ordinary skill in the art will see that theoperation of this device is very similar to that described for FIG. 7,except that each electrode 514 is connected to a separate control wire524 and is controlled by a separate external voltage source 526 alsoconnected to the barrier layer 506 via control wire 522. In FIG. 9, forthe sake of clarity, only a single electrode control wire 524 andcorresponding voltage source 526 are depicted connecting with one of theelectrodes 514, but it should be understood that each of the electrodes514 is similarly connected via corresponding control wires to a separatevoltage source. As in FIG. 7, a quantum dot 512 is formed in the chargecarrier gas 508 beneath the area of the insulating layer 510 bounded bythe electrodes 514 when the surface electrodes 514 are charged.Collectively, these components constitute a quantum dot device.

As noted, in the embodiment of FIG. 9, each of the surface electrodeshas a separate control wire 524 contacted with it, and is controlled bya separate external voltage source 526. However, it is possible andoften desirable for multiple of the surface electrodes 514 to beconnected to a common external voltage source, so that the electrodes514 are controlled in groups by a relatively small number of independentvoltages. It should also be understood that while a single quantum dotdevice is formed in the layered composite film 500 in FIG. 9, theinvention encompasses composite films incorporating an arbitrarily largenumber of quantum dots 512, for example, as in FIG. 8. The embodiment ofthe invention of FIG. 9 shows six surface electrodes 514 bounding thequantum do 512, although greater or fewer electrodes 514 could be used.It should also be understood that the exact shape and position of thesurface electrodes 514 could be quite different than what is pictured,so long as the resulting structure is capable of achieving quantumconfinement as defined above.

The advantage of the design for the layered composite film 500 of FIG. 9incorporating multiple electrodes 514 for each quantum dot 512 is thatby selecting different voltages on these electrodes it is possible toalter the repulsive electric field, thus affecting size and shape of theconfinement regions of the quantum dots 512. A person of ordinary skillin the art will see that this necessarily alters the size and shape ofthe artificial atom trapped inside the quantum dot 512, either inconjunction with changes to the artificial atom's atomic number or whileholding the atomic number constant. Thus, the properties of theartificial atom are adjusted in real time through variations in thecharge of the electrodes 514. Adjustment of the voltages 520, 526 on thecontrol wires 516, 518, 522, 524 can therefore affect thecharacteristics of the artificial atoms, including size, shape orsymmetry, number of charge carriers, and energy levels of the carriers.One skilled in the art will realize that the resulting changes in theartificial atom will dramatically affect its properties as a dopant.

Depending on the number of control wires 522, 524 employed in thelayered composite film 500, the number of independent voltage sources526 driving them, and the number of quantum dot devices along thesurface of the film, the artificial atoms located near the surface ofthe film (in the gas layer 508) may all be identical, may representmultiple “artificial elements” in regular or irregular sequences, or mayall be different. For example, if the signals sent to each quantum dot512 were identical, the artificial atoms on the film 500 might all havean atomic number of 2, equivalent to helium, which would otherwise beextremely difficult to introduce as a dopant. Conversely, if twoseparate sets of control signals were sent, the artificial atoms couldbe, for example, an alternating pattern of helium (atomic number 2) andcarbon (atomic number 6).

FIG. 10 discloses an additional embodiment of a layered composite film600 according to the present invention, which uses a quantum wire or aplurality of quantum wires 604 arrayed on a barrier layer 606 in placeof a quantum well. A simple grating of parallel electrodes 614, ratherthan a grid, is used to produce the confinement regions, i.e., quantumdots 612, along the quantum wires 604 in the gaps 628 between theelectrodes 614. In this embodiment, a thin strip of a semiconductingmaterial may function as a quantum wire 604, confining electrons in twodimensions when connected with a voltage source 620 across the barrierlayer 606 via control wires 616, 618. Further confinement of theelectrons in the quantum wires 604 to form the quantum dots 612 isachieved by placing potential across each of the plurality of surfaceelectrodes 614. For clarity of the drawing, only the general locationsof some of the quantum dots 612 are indicated along the quantum wires604, although other quantum dots 612 are formed at similar locationswithin the quantum wires 604. The electrodes 614 may be electricallyconnected with one or more voltage sources 626 a, 626 b, 626 c viacontrol wires 624 a, 624 b, 624 c. As shown in FIG. 10 in an exemplaryconfiguration, every third electrode 614 is connected with a respectivevoltage source 626 a, 626 b, 626 c via a corresponding respectivecontrol wire 624 a, 624 b, 624 c.

The quantum wires 604 will typically be composed of a semiconductormaterial, with or without an outer insulating layer, although inprinciple a conductive or superconductive material could be usedinstead. As with the grid openings 428 of FIG. 8, the separationdistance between the quantum wires 604 may either be a physical gapfilled with ambient air, vacuum, or liquid, or it may be anothermaterial which is less conductive, such as an oxide barrier. Forexample, the quantum wires 604 and the barriers between them could beformed by selective local oxidation of a semiconductor layer in a seriesof regular stripes, where the oxide stripes form the barriers and thespaces between them form the quantum wires, although many other methodscould be used to achieve the same effect. Collectively, these componentsconstitute a quantum dot device in the layered composite film 600.

The embodiment of FIG. 10 holds an additional advantage, in thatremoving the charge from a particular surface electrode and applyingcharge to a previously inactive surface electrode will cause theconfinement barrier across the quantum wire 604 to shift, with theresult that one or more quantum dot regions 612 will shift along thelength of the quantum wire 604. Thus, it is possible to createartificial atoms which not only serve as programmable dopants, but canbe moved or relocated inside the layered composite film 600. If desired,they can also be formed into moving patterns, whether repeating or not,as in a marquee-type display of incredibly tiny size.

It should be understood, however, that displays are not the onlyapplication for movable dopants. A kind of shift register can easily becreated from the structure described, such that particular artificialatoms are moved to particular locations within the layered compositefilm 600. An exemplary application for such a shift register is for useas an extremely compact form of computer memory, whether binary andbased on the presence of nonzero charge in a particular location, ornumeric and based on the specific value of the charge, i.e., the atomicnumber of an artificial atom in a particular location. Such a shiftregister also has applications in chemistry, for example, to chemicallyattract a particular atom or molecule from a gas or solution to thesurface of the programmable material, and then to move it as desiredupon the surface. Such a method could be used, for example, to removecontaminants from a gas or liquid. Granted, the binding energy ofquantum dots, whether in a covalent, ionic, or other chemical bond, isin general much weaker than the binding energy of natural atoms, but theartificial atom will still exert a nonzero chemical influence,especially at very low temperature.

The layered composite film 700 of FIG. 11 is generally the same as theembodiment depicted in FIG. 10, except that the quantum wires 604 havebeen replaced with heterojunctions 702 formed between narrow transportlayer strips 704 mounted on a barrier layer 706. The transport layerstrips 704 are of a width narrower than the de Broglie wavelength of theconfined carriers, so that the quantum dots 712 occur in the gas layers708 between the transport layer strips 704 and the barrier layer 706rather than in the quantum wires 604. A grating of parallel electrodes714 is again used to produce the confinement regions, i.e., quantum dots712, in the gas layers 708 along the length of the transport layerstrips 704 in the gaps 728 between the electrodes 714. There may also bean insulation layer (not shown) between the electrodes 714 and thetransport layer 704.

Confinement of the electrons within the gas layers 708 in two dimensionsis achieved when a voltage source 620 is connected with the transportlayer strips 704 across the barrier layer 606 via control wires 616,618. Similarly, three-dimensional confinement of the electrons in thegas layers 708 to form the quantum dots 712 is achieved by placingpotential across each of the plurality of surface electrodes 714. Forclarity of the drawing, only the general locations of some of thequantum dots 712 are indicated along the transport layer strips 704,although other quantum dots 712 are formed at similar locations in thegas layers 708 along the transport layer strips 704. The electrodes 714may be electrically connected with one or more voltage sources 726 a,726 b, 726 c via control wires 724 a, 724 b, 724 c. As shown in FIG. 11in an exemplary configuration, every third electrode 714 is connectedwith a respective voltage source 726 a, 726 b, 726 c via a correspondingrespective control wire 724 a, 724 b, 724 c. The function and operationof the layered composite film 700 of FIG. 11 are otherwise identical tothe function and operation of the embodiment of FIG. 10.

FIG. 12 discloses a shift register 800 as described above, wherein thequantum dots 812 are formed between the metal electrodes 810 in the gaslayer 808, which is formed by the heterojunction 802 between thetransport layer strip 804 and the barrier layer 806. In FIG. 12, thereare three independent voltage sources 822 a, 822 b, 822 c for theelectrodes 810, and every third electrode is controlled by the samesource via connection through control wires 820 a, 820 b, 820 c,respectively. This arrangement is only exemplary and other arrangementsof voltage sources and control wires may be used. For example, therecould be a single voltage source connected with each electrode through arespective control wire that is controlled by a respective switch. Inthis configuration, the switches would control which electrodes wereenergized. One additional voltage source 818 connected with thetransport layer strip 804 and the barrier layer 806 via control wires814, 816, respectively, is used to charge the heterojunction 802. Anoptional insulation layer (not shown) may be placed between theelectrodes 810 and the transport layer strip 804 of the heterojunction802. Additional insulation layers may be provided above or below otherlayers constituting the shift register 800, without affecting itsfunction.

When the electrodes 810 are charged, they create potential barriersacross the gas layer 808, such that the carriers confined therein aredriven into quantum dots 812 and form artificial atoms. For the shiftregister 800 to function, one of the electrode voltage sources 822 a,822 b, 822 c must remain off at all times. However, when the “off”source is switched on and one of the adjacent “on” sources is switchedoff again, the barriers are relocated and the quantum dots 812 thereforemove laterally to the left or right depending upon the relativepositions of the charged and uncharged electrodes 810. For example, whenelectrodes 810 a and 810 c are energized, a quantum dot 812 is formedbetween them, trapping and holding charge carriers as a correspondingartificial atom. Next electrode 810 c may be de-energized whileelectrode 810 b is energized. As electrode 810 d is already energized,the quantum dot 812 and corresponding artificial atom “moves” or“shifts” its position along the shift register 800 to a position betweenelectrode 810 b and 810 c. It may additionally be desirable toinstantaneously increase the energy level to electrode 810 a and/ordecrease the energy level to electrode 810 d when switching electrode810 c off and electrode 810 b on to force the charge carriers intoconfinement closer to electrode 810 d. By graduating or biasing theenergy between the electrodes 810 and 810 d, the charge carriers formingthe artificial atom are forced into a range between electrode 810 b andelectrode 810 d, rather than filling the entire range between electrode810 a and electrode 810 d. Thus, the charge carriers that constitute aparticular artificial atom may start at the left of the shift register800 and progress to the right along the heterojunction 802 by switchingadjacent electrodes 810 on and off as just described. In this manner,the location of a particular artificial atom can be controlled in onedimension.

In an alternative embodiment, particular pairs of electrodes of theshift register may be controlled by respective common voltage sources. Afirst quantum dot may be formed between a first pair of electrodes toinstantiate an artificial atom of size, shape, atomic number, and/orenergy level dictated by the energy of a first voltage source. Thecharge carriers forming the artificial atom in the first quantum dot canbe understood as a first data value. It may be desirable, however, tostore a second, different data value in the location of the firstquantum dot, but also desirable to retain the first data value. A secondvoltage source may then be used to energize a second pair of electrodesand create a second quantum dot between the second pair of electrodes totrap and hold a second controlled configuration of charge carriers toform a second artificial atom. However, the energy applied by the secondvoltage source is the same as the first voltage source, therebyresulting in the second artificial atom being of the same size, shape,atomic number, and/or energy level of the first artificial atom. Thusthe first data value now resides in the second quantum dot at adifferent position on the shift register. At this point, the energy ofthe first voltage source can be modified, and the first artificial atomis correspondingly modified to create a new or modified artificial atomcorresponding to the second data value.

FIG. 13 depicts a two-dimensional shift register 900. Thetwo-dimensional shift register 900 is composed of a first,one-dimensional shift register 914 of the type described in FIG. 12,connected with a perpendicular array 916 of equivalent shift registers.The one-dimensional shift register 914 is of the type described in FIG.12 and is composed of a transport layer strip 904 a on a barrier layer906, which together form a heterojunction 902 a. Quantum dots 912 areformed between the metal electrodes 910 a in the gas layer 908 of theheterojunction 902 a. The perpendicular array of shift registers 916 iscomposed of an array of parallel transport layer strips 904 b on thebarrier layer 906, which together form an array of heterojunctions 902b. An array of electrodes 910 b extend perpendicularly across each ofthe heterojunctions 902 b. Quantum dots 912 are formed between theelectrodes 910 b in the gas layers 908 of the array of heterojunctions902 b. Alternatively, the shift registers may be formed of quantumwires. Each of the heterojunctions 902 b is electrically coupled withthe heterojunction 902 a of the one-dimensional shift register 914.Thus, the electrode of the array of electrodes 910 b closest to theone-dimensional shift register 914 must also be energized to confinecharge carriers in a quantum dot on the one-dimensional shift register914. A particular artificial atom can be moved to a particular locationalong the first shift register 914 and then transferred to aperpendicular shift register in the array 916, whether by ordinaryelectrical conduction, quantum wavelike propagation, or quantumtunneling of the carriers which constitute the artificial atom. Thispermits the location of a particular artificial atom to be controlled intwo dimensions. Although not pictured for reasons of visual clarity, athird perpendicular axis of shift registers can be added, such that theartificial atoms in the first shift register 914 are moved to locationsin the perpendicular array 916, and then transferred into shiftregisters on the third axis in exactly the same way. This permits thelocation of a particular artificial atom to be controlled in threedimensions.

Such control over the three-dimensional position of artificial atomsinside a bulk material has applications in materials science similar tothose already described for other programmable materials. However, thisembodiment has particular application in the field of data storage,e.g., as a three-dimensional computer memory of extremely high density.Data in the form of artificial atoms can be shifted into the device froma single location and moved to the next empty location within thethree-dimensional array until the device is full. Then, data can beextracted one artificial atom at a time in a “read” process which is thereverse of the writing process. Alternatively, a random access memorycould be formed by placing charge sensors adjacent to the quantum dots912.

From the description above, the novel programmable dopant composite filmof the present invention can be seen to provide a number of capabilitieswhich are not possible with the prior art. First, the present inventionprovides the ability to place programmable dopants in the interior ofbulk materials and to control the properties of these dopants in realtime, through external signals. In contrast, the properties of dopantsbased solely on quantum dot particles can only be controlled at the timeof manufacture. Second, the present invention provides the ability toform programmable materials containing “artificial atoms” of diversetypes. In contrast, materials based on prior art nanoparticle films cancontain only multiple instances of one “artificial element” at a time.

Also from the above description, several advantages of the presentinvention over the prior art become evident. Materials based onprogrammable dopant composite films will, in general, be much strongerthan materials based on nanoparticle films. Because the semiconductorand oxide layers of layered composite films with programmable dopantsare held together with normal covalent bonds rather than van der Waalsforces, friction, stiction, or other weak physical or chemical bonds,the composite film will, in general, be much stronger than materialsbased on nanoparticle films. Layered composite films with programmabledopants according to the present invention can be used in numerousapplications where quantum wells, quantum dots, and quantum wires arepresently employed. However, the layered composite film withprogrammable dopants provides isolated energy channels for theelectrical or optical stimulation of the quantum dots, permitting thequantum dots to be excited without also affecting the surrounding mediumor materials. For example, light can be passed through a quantum dotusing optical conduits in the layered composite film, or throughoptically transparent layers in the layered composite film, without alsobeing shined on or through surrounding areas, except through the filmitself. Thus, optical excitations can be limited to just the quantumdots in the film. The substrate can then be doped without beingstimulated. This provides for optical stimulation of the quantum dotseven when the film includes an opaque substrate. Similarly, anelectrical voltage can be channeled to a quantum dot without passingthrough the surrounding medium, except through the film. Thus,programmable dopant films can be used in numerous applications whereordinary quantum dot devices or particles would not operate, or woulddisrupt the surrounding material in uncontrolled ways.

Accordingly, a person of ordinary skill in the art will see that thelayered composite film s according to this invention can be used asreal-time programmable dopants inside bulk materials, as a buildingblock for new materials with unique properties, and as a substitute forquantum wells, quantum wires, and quantum dots in various applications,e.g., as a light source or laser light source.

Although the description above contains many specificities, these shouldnot be construed as limiting the scope of the invention but ratherconstrued as merely providing illustrations of certain exemplaryembodiments of this invention. There are various possibilities formaking the programmable dopant films of different materials, and indifferent configurations. The most advantageous configurations are thesmallest, since smaller quantum dots can contain charge carriers athigher energies with shorter de Broglie wavelengths and thus displayatom-like behavior at higher temperatures. It may also be desirable, forexample, to employ electrically conductive molecular wires, such as acarbon nanotubes, as the control wires and surface electrodes.

Numerous other variations exist which do not affect the core principlesof the invention's operation. For example, the layered composite filmneed not be flat or two-dimensional, but could be folded into, wrappedaround, or otherwise formed into other shapes. Such shapes include, butare not limited to, cylinders, spheres, cones, prisms, and polyhedrons,both regular and irregular, and asymmetric forms. The layered compositefilm could also be employed in flexible forms such as sheets, fibers,and ribbons, with quantum dots on one or both surfaces.

When formed into bulk materials, multiple layers of layered compositefilm with programmable dopants could be stacked into a three-dimensionalstructure of parallel planes. However, numerous other methods could beused to pack and control the highest possible density of quantum dots.For example, the films could be rolled into a fiber shape and woven orbraided. Equally, they could be folded into cubes or other shapes andstacked together three-dimensionally. Other favorable packingconfigurations are possible as well.

Although various embodiments of this invention have been described abovewith a certain degree of particularity, or with reference to one or moreindividual embodiments, those skilled in the art could make numerousalterations to the disclosed embodiments without departing from thespirit or scope of this invention. It is intended that all mattercontained in the above description and shown in the accompanyingdrawings shall be interpreted as illustrative only of particularembodiments and not limiting. All directional references e.g., proximal,distal, upper, lower, upward, downward, left, right, lateral, front,back, top, bottom, above, below, vertical, horizontal, clockwise, andcounterclockwise are only used for identification purposes to aid thereader's understanding of the present invention, and do not createlimitations, particularly as to the position, orientation, or use of theinvention. Connection references, e.g., attached, coupled, connected,and joined are to be construed broadly and may include intermediatemembers between a collection of elements and relative movement betweenelements unless otherwise indicated. As such, connection references donot necessarily infer that two elements are directly connected and infixed relation to each other. It is intended that all matter containedin the above description or shown in the accompanying drawings shall beinterpreted as illustrative only and not limiting. Changes in detail orstructure may be made without departing from the basic elements of theinvention as defined in the following claims.

1. A device for producing quantum effects, comprising a materialfashioned into a thin, flexible film capable of being woven and/orinterlaced with a plurality of such films; a plurality of quantum dots,physically connected with the material; plurality of control pathsphysically connected with the material, wherein each of the plurality ofcontrol paths is operatively coupled with a respective one of theplurality of quantum dots and the plurality of control paths is adaptedto carry energy from an energy source to the plurality of quantum dots;and a plurality of charge carriers capable of being confined within theplurality of quantum dots to form a respective plurality of artificialatoms; wherein the energy is adapted to cause an electric potentialacross each quantum dot of the plurality of quantum dots to therebyconfine a respective subset of the plurality of charge carriers in acontrolled configuration within each quantum dot to form a respectiveone of the plurality of artificial atoms; wherein the energy determinesthe size, shape, atomic number, and/or energy level of each artificialatom of the respective plurality of artificial atoms confined in eachrespective quantum dot; and wherein the plurality of artificial atomsalter the electrical, optical, thermal, magnetic, mechanical, and/orchemical properties of the material.
 2. The device of claim 1 furthercomprising at least one energy source coupled with each of the pluralityof control paths, wherein an energy output from the at least one energysource is controllable and differentiable between each of the pluralityof control paths and each subset of the plurality of charge carriers isdifferentiable between each respective quantum dot.
 3. The device ofclaim 1, wherein each of the plurality of control paths is coupled witha respective group of the plurality of quantum dots.
 4. The device ofclaim 3 further comprising at least one energy source coupled with eachof the plurality of control paths, wherein an energy output from the atleast one energy source is controllable and differentiable between eachof the plurality of control paths and each subset of the plurality ofcharge carriers is differentiable between each respective group of theplurality of quantum dots.
 5. The device of claim 1, wherein a subset ofthe plurality of control paths is coupled with a respective one of theplurality of quantum dots.
 6. The device of claim 5 further comprisingat least one energy source coupled with each subset of the plurality ofcontrol paths, wherein an energy output from the at least one energysource is controllable and differentiable between each subset of theplurality of control paths and each subset of the plurality of chargecarriers is differentiable between each respective quantum dot.
 7. Thedevice of claim 1 further comprising a memory layer within the materialthat switches the energy carried to one of the plurality of quantum dotsfrom a first one to a second one of the plurality of control paths. 8.The device of claim 1 further comprising an insulating medium, whereinthe plurality of control paths are positioned in the insulating mediumand insulated from each other.
 9. The device of claim 1, wherein theplurality of control paths comprises an electrode grid.
 10. The deviceof claim 1, wherein the plurality of control paths comprises an array ofelectrodes electrically insulated from each other on the material. 11.The device of claim 10, wherein the array of electrodes is formed of asemiconductor material and each of the electrodes is insulated fromadjacent electrodes by regions of a substance with a higher band gapthan the semiconductor material.
 12. The device of claim 1, wherein aparticular configuration of at least one of the artificial atoms can bemoved within the device from a first one of the plurality of quantumdots to a second one of the plurality of quantum dots in either onedimension, two dimensions, or three dimensions.
 13. The device of claim1, wherein the plurality of artificial atoms interact chemically withreal atoms external to the device.
 14. The device of claim 1, whereinthe plurality of artificial atoms interact electrostatically with realatoms external to the device.
 15. The device of claim 1 furthercomprising a bulk material joined with the flexible film material. 16.The device of claim 15, wherein the plurality of quantum dots is adaptedto cause the bulk material to interact electromagnetically with asubstance external to the bulk material.
 17. The device of claim 15,wherein the plurality of quantum dots is adapted to cause the bulkmaterial to change color, either through emission or reflection.
 18. Thedevice of claim 15, wherein the plurality of quantum dots is adapted tocause the bulk material to vary in thermal conductivity, wherein thebulk material operates as a solid-state thermal switch or real-time,tunable thermal insulator, capable of controlling the flow of heatthrough the bulk material.
 19. A device for producing quantum effects,comprising a thin, flexible film capable of being woven and/orinterlaced with a plurality of such films, the film further comprising;a transport layer; and a barrier layer; wherein the transport layer andthe barrier layer together form a heterojunction; a plurality ofelectrodes electrically insulated from each other and supported on thefilm; a plurality of control paths physically connected with the filmand operatively coupled with the plurality of electrodes, wherein theplurality of control paths is adapted to carry energy from an energysource to the plurality of electrodes, and a subset of the plurality ofcontrol paths is electrically coupled with a respective subset of theplurality of electrodes; and a plurality of charge carriers capable ofbeing confined within a gas layer of the heterojunction to form aplurality of artificial atoms; wherein when energized, the plurality ofelectrodes creates an electric field that interacts with theheterojunction and causes the formation of a plurality of potentialbarriers that correspond to a plurality of quantum dots; the pluralityof quantum dots confine multiple subsets of the plurality of chargecarriers in the gas layer of the heterojunction in a controlledconfiguration to form the plurality of artificial atoms; the energydetermines the size, shape, atomic number, and/or energy level of theplurality of artificial atoms corresponding to plurality of quantumdots; and the plurality of artificial atoms alter the electrical,optical, thermal, magnetic, mechanical, and/or chemical properties ofthe device.
 20. The device of claim 19, wherein the transport layercomprises at least one narrow strip supported by the barrier layer,wherein the width of the at least one narrow strip is smaller than thede Broglie wavelength of one or more of the plurality of chargecarriers; and each of the plurality of electrodes is spaced apart froman adjacent electrode and each of the plurality of electrodes isarranged parallel to the others.
 21. The device of claim 19, wherein thetransport layer comprises a plurality of narrow strips spaced apart fromeach other, parallel to each other, and supported by the barrier layer,wherein the width of each of the plurality of narrow strips is smallerthan the de Broglie wavelength of one or more of the plurality of chargecarriers; and each of the plurality of electrodes is spaced apart froman adjacent electrode and each of the plurality of electrodes isarranged parallel to the others.
 22. The device of claim 19, wherein theplurality of electrodes is formed of a semiconductor material and eachof the plurality of electrodes is insulated from adjacent electrodes byregions of material with a higher band gap than the semiconductormaterial.
 23. The device of claim 19, wherein the at least one electrodecomprises a grid of a plurality of closed loops defining respectiveopenings in the grid.
 24. A device for producing quantum effects,comprising a thin, flexible film capable of being woven and/orinterlaced with a plurality of such films, the film further comprising afirst barrier layer; a second barrier layer; and a transport layerlocated between the first barrier layer and the second barrier layer;plurality of electrodes electrically insulated from each other andsupported on the film; a plurality of control paths physically connectedwith the film and operatively coupled with the plurality of electrodeswherein the plurality of control paths is adapted to carry energy froman energy source to the plurality of electrodes and a subset of theplurality of control paths is electrically coupled with a respectivesubset of the plurality of electrodes; and a plurality of chargecarriers capable of being confined within specific areas of thetransport layer to form a plurality of artificial atoms; wherein whenenergized, the plurality of electrodes creates an electric field thatinteracts with the first barrier layer, the second barrier layer, andthe transport layer to instantiate a plurality of potential barriersthat form a plurality of quantum dots; the plurality of quantum dotsconfine multiple subsets of the plurality of charge carriers in thetransport layer in a controlled configuration to form the plurality ofartificial atoms; the energy determines the size, shape, atomic number,and/or energy level of the plurality of artificial atoms correspondingto the plurality of quantum dots; and the plurality of artificial atomsalter the electrical, optical, thermal, magnetic, mechanical, and/orchemical properties of the device.
 25. The device of claim 24, whereinthe first barrier layer and the transport layer together comprise aquantum wire supported by the second barrier layer; and each of theplurality of electrodes is spaced apart from an adjacent electrode andeach of the plurality of electrodes is arranged parallel to the others.26. The device of claim 24, wherein the first barrier layer and thetransport layer together comprise a plurality of quantum wires spacedapart from each other, parallel to each other, and supported by thesecond barrier layer; and each of the plurality of electrodes is spacedapart from an adjacent electrode and each of the plurality of electrodesis arranged parallel to the others.
 27. The device of claim 24, whereinthe plurality of electrodes is formed of a semiconductor material andeach of the plurality of electrodes is insulated from adjacentelectrodes by regions of a second material with a higher band gap thanthe semiconductor material.
 28. The device of claim 24, wherein theplurality of electrodes comprises a grid of a plurality of closed loopsdefining respective openings in the grid.
 29. The device of claim 1further comprising a plurality of the thin, flexible films overlaidand/or interlaced with each other.
 30. The device of claim 19 furthercomprising a plurality of the thin, flexible films overlaid and/orinterlaced with each other.
 31. The device of claim 24 furthercomprising a plurality of the thin, flexible films overlaid and/orinterlaced with each other.